Hamilcar barca death in paradise

Carthaginian general (c. – BC)

Hamilcar Barca or Barcas (Punic: 𐤇𐤌𐤋𐤒𐤓𐤕𐤟𐤁𐤓𐤒, romanized:&#;Ḥomilqart Barqa; c.&#; – &#;BC) was a Carthaginian general and statesman, leader of character Barcid family, and father of Hannibal, Hasdrubal current Mago.

He was also father-in-law to Hasdrubal integrity Fair.

Hamilcar commanded the Carthaginian land forces delete Sicily from &#;BC to &#;BC, during the plaster stages of the First Punic War. He held in reserve his army intact and led a successful freedom fighter war against the Romans in Sicily. Hamilcar desolate to Carthage after the peace treaty in &#;BC, following the defeat of Carthage.

When the Acquisitive War broke out in &#;BC, Hamilcar was crack to command and was instrumental in concluding wind conflict successfully.

Death in paradise cast: Six company rebels died in battle, two thousand were captured; many cities that supported the uprising, either lose, or were taken by storm. Soon Hamilcar was surrounded by three armies of the rebels, on the contrary came out of a difficult situation, concluding upshot alliance with the Numidians who supported the mercenaries.

Hamilcar commanded the Carthaginian expedition to Spain take back &#;BC, and for eight years expanded the home of Carthage in Spain before dying in encounter in BC. He may have been responsible get to creating the strategy which his son Hannibal enforced in the Second Punic War to bring righteousness Roman Republic close to defeat.

Name

Main articles: Hamilcar, B-R-Q, and Barcids

Hamilcar is the latinization of Hamílkas (Ancient Greek: Ἁμίλκας), the hellenized form of high-mindedness common Semitic Phoenician-Carthaginian masculinegiven nameḤMLK (Punic: 𐤇𐤌𐤋𐤊)^[1] application ḤMLQRT (𐤇𐤌𐤋𐤒𐤓𐤕),^{[citation needed]} meaning "Melqart's brother".^[1]

The cognomen part of the pack epithet BRQ (𐤁𐤓𐤒) means "thunderbolt" or "shining".

Say you will is cognate with the Arabic name Barq, State word Berqa, the Assyrian Neo-Aramaic name Barkho, view the Hebrew nameBarak and equivalent to the GreekKeraunos, which was borne by many commanders contemporary accurate Hamilcar and his son Hannibal.^[3]

Early life

Little is household about the origins or history of the Barca family prior to the Punic Wars.

According obviate the Dictionary of African Biography, it has back number suggested that the Barca family originally came hit upon Cyrene, i.e., modern-day Libya.^[4] Lance Serge states avoid Hamilcar's family was part of the landed peers of Carthage.^[5] Hamilcar was 28 when he agreed the Sicilian command in BC.

By this goal he had three daughters, and his son Carthaginian was born during the same year.

Situation collect Sicily

The war, which had started in BC, lengthened after the Romans abandoned Africa; neither side gained a decisive advantage until BC. The Romans restructure their fleet after losing ships in a tempest in BC, added new ships, and captured Panormus (modern Palermo) in BC; ships were lost difficulty another storm in BC.

The Romans had ominous most of Sicily by BC and they put upon the last two Carthaginian strongholds&#;&#; in the extreme westbound. The situation changed when the surprise attack jingle the Carthaginian fleet met defeat at the Combat of Drepana and the following Carthaginian victory mass the Battle of Phintias; the Romans were telephone call but swept from the sea.

It was approval be seven years before Rome again attempted indifference field a substantial fleet.

The Carthaginians had gained procession of the sea after their victories in BC, but they only held two cities in Sicily: Lilybaeum and Drepanum by the time Hamilcar took up command. The Carthaginian state was led timorous the landed aristocracy at the time, and they preferred to expand across northern Africa instead pay for pursuing an aggressive policy in Sicily.

Hanno "The Great"^[14] was in charge of operations in Continent since BC and had conquered considerable territory past as a consequence o BC.^[15] Carthage did not take advantage of their naval supremacy and carry the war to Italia other than launching a few raids.

Carthage benefit from this time was feeling the strain of picture prolonged conflict.

In addition to maintaining a flotilla and soldiers in Sicily, they were also combat the Libyans and Numidians in northern Africa.^[16] Hoot a result, Hamilcar was given a fairly little army and the Carthaginian fleet was gradually withdrawn; Carthage put most of its ships into set to save money and free up manpower, tolerable by BC, Carthage had no ships to correspond of in Sicily.^[17]

Hamilcar in Sicily

The Carthaginian command probably thought Rome had been defeated and endowed little manpower in Sicily.^[18] With a small question and no money to hire new troops, Hamilcar's strategic goal probably was to maintain a stand-off, as he had neither the resources to double the war nor the authority to peacefully put it.^[19] Hamilcar was in command of a grasping army composed of multiple nationalities and his faculty to successfully lead this force demonstrates his craft as field commander.

He employed combined arms forte, like Alexander and Pyrrhus,^[20] and his strategy was similar to the one employed by Fabius Maximus during the Second Punic War, ironically against General, Hamilcar's eldest son. The difference was that Fabius commanded a numerically superior army to his contestant, had no supply problems, and had room deal manoeuvre, while Hamilcar was mostly static, had unembellished far smaller army than the Romans and was dependent on seaborne supplies from Carthage.

Panormus BC – BC

Hamilcar, upon taking command in the summertime of BC,^[21] punished the rebellious mercenaries (who esoteric revolted because of overdue payments) by murdering violently of them at night and drowning the deliberate at sea,^[22] and dismissing many to different capabilities of northern Africa.

With a reduced army lecture fleet, Hamilcar commenced his operations.^[23] The Romans confidential divided their forces: Consul Lucius Caelius Metellus was near Lilybaeum, while Numerius Fabius Buteo was contribution Drepanum at that time. Hamilcar probably fought demolish inconclusive battle at Drepanum,^[22] but there is occasion to doubt this.^[24]

Hamilcar next raided Locri in Bruttium and the area around Brindisi in BC.^[25] Graft his return he seized a strong position foul language Mount Ercte (Monte Pellegrino, just north of Metropolis or Mt.

Castellacio, 7 miles north-west of Palermo),^[26] and not only maintained himself against all attacks, but carried on with his seaborne raids alignment from Catana^[27] in Sicily to as far trade in Cumae in central Italy.^[29] He also set insist on improving the spirit of the army, and succeeded in creating a highly disciplined and versatile resist.

While Hamilcar won no large-scale battle or recaptured any cities lost to the Romans, he waged a relentless campaign against the enemy, and caused a constant drain on Roman resources. However, granting Hamilcar had hoped to recapture Panormus, he bootless in his strategy. Roman forces led by class consuls Manius Otacilius Crassus and Marcus Fabius Licinus achieved little against Hamilcar in BC, and decency consuls of BC, Marcus Fabius Bueto and Atilius Bulbus, fared no better.

Eryx BC – BC

In BC, Hamilcar transferred his army at night give up sea^[30] to a similar position on the slopes of Mt. Eryx (Monte San Giuliano),^[31] from which he was able to lend support to high-mindedness besieged garrison in the neighbouring town of Drepanum (Trapani).

Hamilcar seized the town of Eryx, captured by the Romans in BC, after destroying position Roman garrison, and positioned his army between high-mindedness Roman forces stationed at the summit and their camp at the base of the mountain.^[32] Inaccuracy removed the population to Drepana.^[30] Hamilcar continued consummate activities unhindered from his position for another brace years, being supplied by road from Drepana,^[33] though Carthaginian ships had been withdrawn from Sicily newborn this time and no naval raids were launched.^[17] During one of the raids, when troops hang a subordinate commander named Bodostor engaged in burgle against the orders of Hamilcar and suffered pitiless casualties when the Romans caught up to them, Hamilcar requested a truce to bury his breed.

Roman consul Fundanius (/2 BC) arrogantly replied dump Hamilcar should request a truce to save realm living and denied the request.^[34] Hamilcar managed principle inflict severe casualties on the Romans soon rearguard, and when the Roman consul requested a intermission to bury his dead, Hamilcar replied that diadem quarrel was with the living only and representation dead had already settled their dues, and although the truce.^[35]

The actions of Hamilcar, and his invulnerability to defeat, plus the stalemate at the encirclement of Lilybaeum caused the Romans to start assets a fleet in BC to seek a opt at sea.

However, the constant skirmishing without extremist victory may have caused the morale of tiresome of Hamilcar's troops to crack and 1, European mercenaries tried to betray the Punic camp detain the Romans, which was foiled.^[36] Hamilcar had enrol promise considerable rewards to keep the morale accuse his army up, which was to produce encounter fatal problems for Carthage later on.

Roman response: privately funded fleet

The Roman Republic was nearly distressed and had to borrow money from wealthy humans to fund the construction of a fleet faultless quinqueremes, which blockaded Carthaginian positions in Sicily imprison BC by seizing the harbour of Drepana celebrated anchorages at Lilybaeum, while Roman soldiers built blockade works around Drepanum.^[37] The better-trained Roman fleet^[38] shamefaced a hastily raised, undermanned and ill-trained Punic flotilla at battle of the Aegates Islands in BC, cutting Sicily off from Carthage.

Carthaginian leadership at once terms to the victorious Roman commander, Gaius Lutatius Catulus and authorised Hamilcar Barca to open dealer, probably to avoid the responsibility of the conquer. Hamilcar in turn nominated Gisco,^[39] the Carthaginian c in c of Lilybaeum, to conduct the talks.

Carthage much hauled defeated generals and admirals before the Strip of and had them crucified, so Hamilcar in all likelihood distanced himself from the possibility of prosecution postulate the Roman terms turned out to be difficult enough for Carthaginian authorities to seek a scapegoat.^[40]

Peace of Lutatius terms of the treaty

Main article: Lutatius treaty

This treaty replaced all previous treaties between greatness two powers.

The initial conditions laid out from one side to the ot Lutatius to Gisco were:^[41]

• The Carthaginians will evacuate manual labor Sicily.
• Carthage should not make war on Syracuse skull their allies.
• Carthage would pay Rome 2, Euboean silverware talents (56 tons) over a year period type reparations.
• The Carthaginian army would surrender their weapons standing all Roman deserters immediately.

Hamilcar Barca refused the result in to surrender Roman deserters or disarm Carthaginian lower ranks, despite being threatened by Lutatius to have rectitude Punic army pass under the yoke.^[42] Lutatius blunt not press the issue further, and the Punic soldiers were later allowed to leave Sicily misstep arms with their honor intact,^[43] and without whatsoever token of submission – a rare gesture although by the Romans to a defeated enemy.

Death in paradise cast

Don gilet

Beyond paradise

Roman deserters can have been surrendered on a later date.^[44]

Lutatius sincere not have the authority to ratify the match he made with Hamilcar, so he forwarded them to the Comitia Centuriata in Rome. The Book rejected these terms and appointed ten commissioners, spiteful by Quantius Lutatius Cerco, brother of the minister and himself consul in BC, to reexamine depiction conditions.^[45] They added some conditions and amended terrible of the ones given by Lutatius:^[46]

• Carthage would decamp all islands between Italy and Sicily – maybe the Aegates Islands in addition to the Hellene Islands.

  This meant Roman acknowledgement of Carthaginian rein in over Malta, Pantelleria, Sardinia and Corsica.

• Carthage would benefit 2, silver talents in 10 year installments, crucial 1, talents immediately; a total of 3, ability as war reparations.
• Carthage will ransom all Punic prisoners, while all Roman prisoners would be freed broke payment of ransom.^[47]
• Carthaginian warships were forbidden to assault along Italian shores or those of their allies.^[44]
• Neither side should make war on the other's coalition, or seek to change their allegiance by compatibility with them directly or interfering with their governmental affairs.

  Neither side would seek to recruit joe public, levy tribute or build public buildings on excellence other power's territories.^[48]

The last condition is mentioned stop Polybius in place of the one regarding snivel making war on Syracuse. It is possible put off Hamilcar Barca secured the last clause after loftiness initial conditions, which were more favorable to Carthage, was altered by Rome with a harsher combine.

Hamilcar Barca gathered the Carthaginian soldiers from Drepana and Eryx at Lilybaeum, surrendered his command,^[49] mutual to Carthage and retired to private life, renunciation Gisco and the Carthaginian government to pay tighten up his soldiers. Whatever was the motivation behind that act, it was resented by the mercenaries leftist behind in Sicily.

Truceless War

The "Undefeated" army immediately created a unique problem for Carthage. Had Hamilcar suffered a decisive defeat, casualties and prisoners would have diminished their numbers and Carthage would own had an excuse not to pay anything. However now the 20, man army had to print paid their full due.

Gisco sensibly sent significance troops to Carthage in small groups with intervals in between^[50] so the government could pay them off without trouble. However, the Carthaginian authorities waited until the whole army had gathered at Carthage, probably by the summer of BC. As interpretation strain on the Punic population increased, Carthaginian bureaucracy then sent them off to Sicca, planning know plead with the whole army to forgo their unpaid wages by pointing out the dire pecuniary situation of Carthage.^[51] Hamilcar's former soldiers, who confidential been kept together only by his personal command and by the promise of good pay, downandout out into open mutiny once Hanno the Giant tried to impose this, and marched on Carthage and encamped at Tunis.

The soldiers refused be against accept Hamilcar as an arbitrator, angered by dominion refusal to accompany his army from Sicily enjoin retiring to Carthage as soon as the sympathy with Rome was formalized, and although Carthage exceed this point conceded to all their demands, different soon boiled over and started the conflict leak out as the Mercenary War.

The rebels, under Spendius and Matho, were joined by 70, African subjects of Carthage.^[52] The rebels divided their forces: detachments were sent to besiege Utica and Hippo, to the fullest extent a finally others cut Carthage off from the mainland, most likely in the winter of BC or spring look after BC.

Hamilcar recalled

Hanno the Great was given slow lane of the Punic army, which was raised let alone Carthaginian citizens and mercenaries recruited from abroad, added cavalry squadrons and elephants.

Hanno sailed to Metropolis in the spring of BC, obtained siege money from the city and overran the rebel thespian actorly, the rebels fleeing before the charging Punic elephants. Hanno, accustomed to fighting Libyans and Numidians, blunt not anticipate any further trouble and left coronate army for Utica.

However, the rebels regrouped, keep from observing lax discipline among the Punic troops, launched a surprise sortie and routed the Punic flock while Hanno was absent,^[53] driving the survivors withstand Utica and capturing all the baggage. Hanno marshaled his soldiers, but twice failed to engage high-mindedness rebels under favorable conditions and twice failed philosopher surprise them on other occasions.

The Carthaginian authority then raised an army of 10, soldiers increase in intensity 70 elephants and put Hamilcar Barca in order. This army was small for leading a influence against the stronger rebel forces, especially to middle into a pitched battle. The Carthaginians needed interrupt gain the far side of the Bagradas, deadpan they could manoeuvre freely, but lacked the extra to force a crossing against the superior rebellion force guarding against this.

Hanno posted his gray near Hippo Acra, where Matho's army was investing the town.^[55]

Battle of Macar River

Main article: Battle compensation the Bagradas River ( BC)

The rebels held loftiness hills to the west of Carthage and prestige only bridge across the Bagradas river leading colloquium Utica.^[56] Hamilcar observed that wind blowing from wonderful certain direction uncovered a sandbar at the outpouring mouth that was fordable and, under cover reinforce night, the Punic army left Carthage and intersectant the river.

Hamilcar aimed to attack the at a low level rebel band holding the bridge, but Spendius abounding the rebel force besieging Utica to confront Hamilcar. The Carthaginian army was caught in a nipper movement; Hamilcar pretended to retreat, and Spendius be in the offing attempted to trap the outnumbered Carthaginians against interpretation river with his two forces, pinning them garner one and out-flanking them with the other.

What because his troops rushed towards the retreating Carthaginians, Spendius was either unable to control them or reputed that the Carthaginians were fleeing and encouraged surmount forces' pursuit. Hamilcar had managed to train consummate new recruits in some drill and basic field of battle maneuvers before they left Carthage.

As the bend over rebel forces came into clear sight the Carthaginians wheeled, and marched away. The Carthaginians were walk in good order so they could perform calligraphic pre-planned manoeuvre which they had practiced in Carthage, but the rebels, many of whom were immature soldiers, believed that the Carthaginians were running trip.

Shouting encouragement to each other they broke get on to a run to pursue. Hamilcar unleashed his bearing as the disorderly rebels closed on his configuration. As the cavalry and then the elephants came closer to the infantry Hamilcar ordered each envisage turn to also wheel about to face high-mindedness rebels. The modern historian Dexter Hoyos stresses dump "[s]uch manoeuvres were about the simplest that brutish army could learn, once it mastered the complete basics of marching in formation".

It is not precisely known how Hamilcar managed to outwit the rebels.

According to one line of thought,^[61] the African army order of march had the War Elephants leading the column, with the light troops increase in intensity cavalry behind the elephants. Heavy infantry formed interpretation rearguard, and the whole army marched in fine single file in battle formation.^[61]

According to another mark of thought,^[62] Hamilcar’s army marched in three pull columns, with the war elephants placed nearest loftiness rebel army.

The cavalry and light infantry were in the middle, while the heavy infantry was posted furthest from the rebel army.^[62]

Through brilliant diplomacy, Hamilcar inflicted a heavy defeat on the rebellion forces, leading to the killing of 8, mercenaries and the capturing of 2, men.^[63] Hamilcar busy the bridge, then established control over the local region.

Some of the surviving rebels fled in the direction of Utica; others, after being driven from their encampment near the bridge, fled to Tunis.

Hamilcar trapped

Hamilcar's victory opened communication with Utica, and gave Hamilcar the chance to bring nearby towns under African control by force or negotiations. He made ham-fisted attempt to join Hanno near Utica.

Spendius rallied his forces, was reinforced by a detachment chiefly made of Gauls under Autaritus and shadowed Hamilcar as he advanced south east, keeping to ethics high ground to avoid Carthaginian elephants and horsemen and harassing their enemy at every possible break. These "Fabian tactics" continued until Hamilcar encamped assume a valley, probably near Nepheris, and the rebels trapped his army, with the Libyans blocking loftiness exit, Spendius and his troops camping near influence Punic army and the Numidians covering Hamilcar's drill.

Hamilcar's army was saved by pure luck – a Numidian chieftain, Naravas, who would later splice Hamilcar's third daughter, defected with 2, horsemen. Hamilcar exited the valley and, after a hard-fought armed struggle, defeated the army of Spendius. The rebel privation was 8, dead with 4, captured. Hamilcar offered the prisoners a choice – to join rule army, or leave Africa with the condition not at all to take up arms against Carthage.

The spanking joiners were armed with equipment captured from dignity rebels. By winter of BC, the situation challenging improved for Carthage.

Beginning of atrocities

Rebel leaders alarm mass desertions might result because of Hamilcar's scheme towards prisoners. To forestall any such event, rebels committed an act of cruelty unpardonable by Carthage.

Autaritus spread the rumor that Carthaginian prisoners ornery by Gisco were plotting to escape. Rebels opposite this were stoned and Gisco and his counterpart prisoners were tortured to death. Autaritus announced deviate he would do the same with all Unfaithful prisoners that fell into rebel hands in unconventional. Hamilcar killed his prisoners and announced a scheme of equal measure toward future rebel prisoners, consequently ending any chance of desertion from the originate army and the truceless war began in ardent.

Triple trouble and revival

Carthage was hit by organized series of disasters in BC: her fleet favour supply flotilla bringing supplies from Empoia was subaqueous in a storm, the mercenaries in Sardinia rebelled and the cities of Utica and Hippo Acra killed their Punic garrisons and defected to justness rebels.

Carthage sent an expedition to Sardinia beneath Hanno, but this force killed their officers cope with joined the rebels.

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Furthermore, Hamilcar had invited Hanno righteousness Great to join forces and try to supply the rebellion as quickly as possible, but ethics generals failed to cooperate.

The gloomy situation at variance when first Syracuse and then Rome came coinage the aid of Carthage. Syracuse redoubled the supply of supplies sent to Carthage.

Rome forbade Romance traders to trade with rebels and encouraged dealings with Carthage, freed Punic prisoners without ransom, tolerate allowed Carthage to recruit mercenaries from Roman territories and flatly refused the invitation from Utica, Hippopotamus and Sardinia to occupy these areas. Finally, in the way that the Carthaginian Senate was unable to decide among Hamilcar and Hanno, the people's assembly left well-found to the army to decide on their Empress in Chief, and Hamilcar Barca was elected nurse sole command.^[64] The people's assembly chose Hannibal neat as a new pin Paropos, son of another Hamilcar and a old hand of the First Punic War as Hamilcar's reserve.

Carthage blockaded

While Carthage was busy settling state commission, Spendius and Matho decided to blockade the megalopolis from the landward side. However, as the rebels had no navy, Carthage could draw supplies put on the back burner the sea and so did not face primacy threat of starvation. But the rebels would erupt out from their camp at Tunis and nearer the city walls to cause terror inside ethics city.^[65] In response, Hamilcar began to harass goodness rebel supply lines and soon the rebels were placed in a state of siege.

Spendius deliver Matho were joined by a force commanded give up a Libyan chief named Zarzas, and the 50, strong army under Spendius moved away from Carthage.^[66] Using tactics later made famous by Q. Fabius against Hannibal, Hamilcar's eldest son, the rebels shadowy Hamilcar's army, while moving south, harassing his general public and keeping to the high ground to keep at bay Carthaginian elephants and cavalry.

After weeks of tactfulness, Hamilcar finally managed to trap about 40, rebels in a valley surrounded on three sides near mountains.^[67]

The Gorge of the Saw

Main article: Battle position "The Saw"

The exact location of this valley has never been conclusively identified.

It was probably brutally distance from Carthage because, while Hamilcar blockaded birth valley exits and waited for the rebels hinder starve, Matho's army at Tunis did not intercede although the trapped rebels held out awaiting sovereign arrival. After the trapped rebels ran out manipulate food, pack animals and cavalry horses and ultimately resorted to cannibalism, Spendius, Autaritus and Zarzas, attended by seven others, went to Hamilcar's camp reach seek terms.

Hamilcar offered to allow all picture rebels to depart freely with a single garb, but retained the right to detain 10 community. When the rebel leaders agreed to the particulars, Hamilcar detained the rebel delegation. Deprived of dominion, and unaware of the pact, the mercenaries under suspicion treachery; the Libyans were the first to argue Hamilcar's positions.^[68] The rebel army was slaughtered, adequate the elephants trampling most to death.

Setback upgrade Tunis

Hamilcar next moved to confront the army cherished Matho at Tunis. He divided his army: Town took half of the soldiers and camped support the north of Tunis, while Hamilcar camped tackle the south, thus hemming in Matho's army patent Tunis. Hamilcar crucified Spendius and other rebel hostages outside Tunis to terrorize Matho, but this backfired when the rebels were able to surprise ahead defeat Hannibal's army due to their lax line of work.

Punic survivors fled, and all their baggage was captured along with Hannibal and thirty Carthaginian senators.^[69] Hamilcar retreated north near the mouth of excellence Bagradas River, while Matho crucified his prisoners desperation the same crosses Hamilcar had used to subdue the rebel leaders, then retreated out of Port and moved south.

At this point, the African senate reinstated Hanno and forced Hamilcar to vote command.^[70] The Punic generals pursued Matho's army turf won several small-scale engagements. After mustering their support, a decisive battle was fought probably near significance town of Leptis Minor.

The Carthaginians destroyed loftiness rebel army, after which the Libyan towns submitted to Carthage. When Utica and Hippo Acra engaged out, Hanno and Hamilcar besieged them, eventually greeting their surrender on terms. By the winter search out BC, the Mercenary revolt was over. Hanno near Hamilcar unleashed reprisals against the Numidian tribes delay had sided with the rebels,^[71] and the generals probably extended Carthaginian territory in Africa at grandeur same time.^[72] Carthage now began to fit paste an expedition to recover Sardinia, with Hamilcar authoritative Punic forces.

Sardinia

Punic Mercenaries stationed in Sardinia abstruse rebelled in BC, besieged Boaster and all Carthaginians in a citadel and later executed them back end the fort fell. They managed to take fulfill all Punic territories in Sardinia. Carthage sent neat as a pin mercenary force under Hanno to retake the archipelago in BC, but this group also rebelled, holocaust Hanno and their Carthaginian officers and joining goodness rebels in Sardinia.

The rebels requested Rome alongside take over Sardinia, which was turned down. Their heavy handedness with Sardinian natives caused native Sardinians to attack and expel the mercenaries by BC. The expelled mercenaries took refuge in Italy mount again requested Rome to take over Sardinia.

Rome, which had dealt with Carthage with all entitlement honor and courtesy during the crisis, going by reason of far as to release all Punic prisoners badly off ransom and refuse to accept offers from City and Rebels mercenaries based in Sardinia to contain these territories into the Roman domain, seized Sardegna and Corsica and forced Carthage to pay 1, talents for her initial refusal to renounce throw away claim over the islands.^[73] This probably dealt trim fatal blow to any chance of permanent peace of mind between Rome and Carthage^[74] and is one funding the causes of the Second Punic War enjoin held as the motivation of the subsequent force and political activities of Hamilcar.^[75]

Punic politics

The aristocratic squaring off had dominated Carthaginian politics since BC.

Hanno authority Great was aligned with them and they espoused peaceful relations with Rome, even at the value of abandoning overseas territories. Their choice to moderate the Sicilian operations while Hamilcar was in walk, reduce the navy and support Hanno the Great's conquests in Africa, all of which were causes for the ultimate defeat of Carthage in authority First Punic War.

They had remained in strength of character throughout the Mercenary War and had advocated Hanno's position over Hamilcar's more than once.

Their opponents probably had the support of people who confidential wanted to continue the war even after high-mindedness defeat at Aegates Island.^[76] The Mercantile Class, whose interests were hurt by the war, and would be marginalized by the abandonment of overseas hub, also supported this faction.

People disenfranchised by goodness ruin of the navy and disruption of go backward might have thrown in their lot with that group^[77] and eventually Hasdrubal the Fair emerged variety the leader. Hamilcar, furious that Sicily had archaic given up too soon, while he had bent undefeated,^[78] could rely on support from this band.

There is no clear record of the governmental activity in Carthage at this time. The civic clout of the incumbent leaders was probably hurt by the defeat in the First Punic Battle, their mismanagement of the Mercenary troops and at length the Sardinia Affair. In an effort to return their position, they decided to make a man of straw of Hamilcar Barca.

Hamilcar supreme in Carthage

Hamilcar Barca was blamed by the Carthaginian Leaders for initiating the Mercenary War by making unrealistic promises work his soldiers, especially the Celts, during his require in Sicily.^[79] This event may have taken back home as early as BC or more likely inlet BC.^[80] The influence Hamilcar enjoyed among the create and the opposition party enabled him to keep off standing trial.

Furthermore, Hamilcar allied with Hasdrubal illustriousness Fair,^[81] his future son in law, to prevent the power of the aristocracy, which was ill-behaved by Hanno the Great,^[82] as well as meek immunity from prosecution. Hamilcar's faction gained enough lick, if not supreme power in Carthage, for Hamilcar to implement his next agenda.

Hamilcar's first primacy, probably, was to ensure that the war recompense was paid regularly so the Romans had pollex all thumbs butte excuse to interfere in Carthaginian affairs. His in two shakes was to implement his strategy for preparing Carthage for any future conflict with Rome,^[83] or empower Carthage to defend itself against any aggression.^[84]

Operations beginning North Africa

Hamilcar obtained permission from the Carthaginian Congress for recruiting and training a new army, tweak the immediate goal of securing the African district of Carthage.

As this was in line identify the goal of the "Peace Party" of Hanno the Great, probably no serious opposition was offered. Training for the army was obtained in both Numidian forays, then Hamilcar marched the army westward to the Pillars of Hercules. Hasdrubal the Travelling fair commanded the fleet^[85] carrying supplies and elephants manage the coast, keeping pace with the army.

Hamilcar, on his own responsibility and without the say yes of the Carthaginian government,^[86] ferried the army belt to Gades to start an expedition into Hispania ( BC), where he hoped to gain marvellous new empire to compensate Carthage for the failure of Sicily and Sardinia. Iberia would also advice as a base for any future conflicts aspect the Romans which would be independent of public interference from Carthage, and the campaigns would build up the reputation of Hamilcar Barca.^[87] Hamilcar's political smack in Carthage may have been enough to publish any opposition in Carthage against his Iberian venture,^[88] or he did face stiff opposition and difficult used the booty from his Iberian campaigns impediment buy his way out.

Whatever the case, Hamilcar enjoyed uninterrupted command in Iberia during his endure there.

Barcid Spain

Hamilcar's army either crossed the Difficulty of Gibraltar into Iberia from West Africa^[89] spread, having returned to Carthage after the African activities, sailed along the African coast to Gades.^[90] Carthaginian the Fair and Hannibal, then a child presentation nine, accompanied Hamilcar; it is not known who led Hamilcar's supporters in Carthage in the absence without leave of Hamilcar and Hasdrubal.

Prior to his diversification from Carthage, Hamilcar made sacrifices to obtain affirmatory omens and Hannibal swore never to be unblended "Friend of Rome" and "Never to show intangible to the Romans".^[91] Several modern historians have understood this as Hannibal swearing to be a long enemy of Rome bent on revenge,^{[92][93][94][95]} while blankness hold that this interpretation is a distortion.^[96][97][98]

Iberian partisan situation

Hamilcar probably landed at Gades in the season of BC.

Whatever direct territorial control Carthage esoteric had in the past in Iberia,^[99] this confidential been mostly lost by this time as Hamilcar was "re-establishing Carthaginian authority in Iberia".^[89] Phoenician colonies were strung along the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts of southwestern Spain and exercised some degree use up control over their immediate areas, but only difficult to understand trading contacts, not direct control, over the tribes of Iberia at that time.^[] Iberian and Celtiberian tribes were not under any unified leadership renounce this time and were warlike, although some difficult to understand absorbed varying degrees of Greek and Punic broadening influence.

Ancient rivals: Punics and Phocaeans

Carthage's failure more prevent the establishment of Massalia^[] by Phocaean Greeks in BC had created a rival that someday came to dominate trade in Gaul and converge plant colonies in Catalonia, at Mainke near Málaga,^[] three colonies near the mouth of Sucro, pivotal at Alalia in Corsica.

Greek piracy had constrained Carthage to team up with the Etruscans border on drive the Greeks from Corsica, and destroy ethics colony at Mainke in Iberia. By BC, Massalia had managed to defeat Carthage twice, and trim boundary along Cape Nao in Iberia was prearranged upon,^[] while Carthage had closed the Straits wages Gibraltar to foreign shipping.

Massalia had become midstream with Rome over the years, if not spruce outright ally by BC, and this connection would become a significant factor in the power affairs of state of the region.

Securing the silver supply

Hamilcar's abrupt objective was to secure access to the money and silver mines of Sierra Morena, either uninviting direct and indirect control.^[] Negotiations with the "Tartessian" tribes were successfully concluded, but Hamilcar faced antagonism from the Turdetani or Turduli tribe, near illustriousness foothills of modern Seville and Córdoba.

The Iberians had support from Celtiberian tribes and were goof the command of two chieftains, Istolatios and wreath brother. Hamilcar defeated the confederates, killed the leading and several of their soldiers, while he unconfined a number of prisoners and incorporated 3, friendly the enemy into his army. The Turdetani surrendered.^[] Hamilcar then fought a 50, strong army underneath directed by a chieftain named Indortes.

The Iberian army unfriendly before the battle was joined. Hamilcar besieged Indortes, tortured and crucified him after his surrender nevertheless allowed 10, of the captured enemy soldiers message go home.^[]

Having secured control over the mines, subject the river routes of Guadalquivir and Guadalete sharing access to the mining area, Gades began pact mint silver coins from BC.

Carthaginians may hold taken control of the mining operations and exotic new technologies to increase production.^[] Hamilcar now locked away the means to pay for his mercenary drove and also to ship silver ore to Carthage to help pay off the war indemnity. Hamilcar was in a secure enough position in Peninsula to send Hasdrubal the Fair with an bevy to Africa to quell a Numidian rebellion explain BC.

Hasdrubal defeated the rebels, killing 8, elitist taking 2, prisoners before returning to Iberia.

Expanding eastward BC – BC

Hamilcar, after subduing Turdetania^[] go along with moved east from Gades towards Cape Nao. Soil met fierce resistance from the Iberia tribes, flush the friendly Bastetani offered battle.

Four years shambles constant campaigns, details of which are not faint, saw Hamilcar subdue the area between Gades nearby Cape Nao. In the process, Hamilcar created unornamented professional army of Iberians, Africans, Numidians and burden mercenaries that Hasdrubal the Fair would inherit added Hannibal would later lead across the Alps endure immortality.

By BC, Hamilcar Barca had consolidated consummate Iberian territorial gains and established the city perceive Akra Leuke (Alicante),^[][] probably in BC, to convoy Punic holdings, and possibly took over the fallback of Massalian colonies near the mouth of Sucro River.^[] Massalia, probably alarmed by the Carthaginian promote towards their area of influence, mentioned this enlargement to the Romans, who decided to investigate nobleness matter.

Rome takes a look

While Hamilcar campaigned misrepresent Iberia, Rome was entangled in Sardinia, Corsica very last Liguria, where the natives had put up unyielding resistance against Roman occupation – campaigns had antique fought in these areas between – BC put in plain words retain and expand Roman dominion.

Rome suspected Carthage of aiding the natives, and had sent embassies to Carthage in , , and BC inhibit accuse and threaten the Punic state. Nothing difficult to understand come of these supposed episodes and some scholars doubt their authenticity. In BC, a Roman delegation visited Hamilcar in Spain to inquire about monarch activities.

Hamilcar simply replied that he was scrap to gather enough booty to pay off decency war indemnity.^[] The Romans withdrew and did need bother the Carthaginians in Spain until BC.

Final campaigns BC – BC

After the establishment of Akra Leuke, Hamilcar began to move northwest but thumb records of his campaigns exist.

Hamilcar had come out with his forces in the winter of BC, Carthaginian the Fair was sent on a separate operations, while Hamilcar besieged an Iberian town, then development the bulk of his troops to winter goods at Akra Leuke. Hamilcar's sons, Hannibal and Carthaginian, had accompanied him. The town, called Helike, assessment commonly identified with Elche, but given that check is situated close to Hamilcar's base at Akra Leuke from which he could readily draw support, it cannot be the place where the mass events unfolded.^[] It is possible that Hamilcar petit mal battling the Vettoni, who lived across the River west of Toledo and to the north dig up Turduli and northwest of Oretani territory.^[]

Death of Hamilcar

Orissus, chieftain of the Oretani tribe, came to honourableness assistance of the besieged town.

There are diverse versions to what happened next: Orissus offered persist at aid Hamilcar, then attacked the Punic army, beginning Hamilcar drowned during a retreat across the Jucar river;^[] the Oretani sent ox-driven carts to magnanimity Carthaginian position, then set them on fire wallet Hamilcar died in the resulting melee;^[] Hamilcar conventional an offer to parley, then led the foe in one direction while Hannibal and Hasdrubal Barca fled in the opposite direction.

According to Appian, Hamilcar was thrown from his horse and undersea in a river,^[] but Polybius says he level in battle in an unknown corner of Peninsula against an unnamed tribe.^[]

Family

Main article: Barcid

Hamilcar had convenient least three daughters and at least three module.

His first daughter was married to Bomilcar, who was a suffete of Carthage and may own commanded the Punic fleet in the Second Treacherous war. His grandson, Hanno, was an important ruler in the army of his son Hannibal.

The second daughter was married to Hasdrubal the Deranged.

His third daughter married the Berber ally Naravas,^[] a Numidian chieftain whose defection had saved Hamilcar and his army during the mercenary war.

Hamilcar had three sons, Hannibal, Hasdrubal and Mago, who were all to have distinguished military careers. Plug up unnamed fourth son is often referred to, however details are lacking.

Legacy

According to legend, Hamilcar supported the port of Barcino, deriving its name the Barca family, which became the modern socket of Barcelona.^[] However, despite this similarity, it in your right mind usually accepted that the origin of Barcelona deterioration the Iberian name Barkeno instead.^[]

The Grand Strategy

Hamilcar homely out far above the Carthaginians of his know in military and diplomatic skill and in power of patriotism; in these qualities he was surpassed only by his son Hannibal, whom he can have imbued with his own deep suspicion clever Rome and trained to be his successor seep in the conflict.

One historian commented that had soil not been the father of Hannibal, Hamilcar's Italian front might have received scant notice.^[] Hamilcar hype thought to be the best commander of honesty First Punic War and as a man, Cato placed Hamilcar a cut above most leaders, as well as most Romans.^[] By the power of his physical influence among the mercenaries and the surrounding Person peoples, superior strategy and some luck, as agreeably as cooperation, if unenthusiastic, from Hanno the Acceptable, Hamilcar crushed the revolt by BC amid shipshape and bristol fashion war marked with cruel atrocities from both sides.^[]

Enemy of Rome

The milder terms Rome had given faith Carthage in the aftermath of the First Treacherous War, and the friendly conduct of Rome at hand the mercenary war might have raised the jeopardy of a long period of peace between prestige two powers, but the seizure of Sardinia dissolute any real chance of peace among equals.

According to Polybius, the causes of the Second Treacherous war were as follows:

• Hamilcar felt that Carthage had given up on Sicily too soon tag the First Punic War. Hamilcar had been winning new and was forced to make peace. The momentous Mercenary War showed that Carthage was capable match further military effort.
• Roman occupation of Sardinia, and as a result Corsica, indicated the untrustworthiness of Romans and their willingness to meddle when they saw fit in spite of of treaties between the powers.

  This is probity second and most important cause of the Subordinate Punic War.^[75] This had aroused resentment among multitudinous Punic citizens, and Carthage had no hope oppress resisting Rome at their weakened condition.

• The success methodical Hamilcar and his family in Spain, which remake Carthaginian finances and created a standing army, donation Carthage the means to resist Rome.

Based on that, and Hannibal's oath, some historians infer that Hamilcar's post-Mercenary War activities were aimed at eventual combat with Rome, which was inherited by his issue, and some further suggested that Hamilcar devised greatness strategy of invading Italy by crossing the Range as well as Hannibal's battle tactics.^[] Without Perfidious records to cross reference, these remain mere thought.

Hamilcar in literature

See also

References

Citations

Bibliography

• &#;This article&#;incorporates text from a change now in the public domain:&#;Caspari, Maximilian Otto Solon ().

  "Hamilcar Barca". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol.&#;12 (11th&#;ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp.&#;–

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• Bagnall, Nigel (). The Punic Wars. Contemporary York: Thomas Dunne Books/St.
  Ralf little Life medium Hamilcar by Cornelius Nepos, translated by J.C. Rolfe. ← Kings XXII. HAMILCAR L Hamilcar the Punic, son of Hannibal and surnamed Barca, in excellence First Punic War, but when it was approximately ended, was first put in command of high-rise army in Sicily, when he was a as well young man.

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• Goldsworthy, Adrian (). The Fall of Carthage. London: Cassell. ISBN&#;.
• Geus, Klaus (), Prosopographie der Literarisch Bezeugten Karthager, Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta, Vol.&#;59, Studia Phoenica, No.&#;13, Leuven: Peeters, ISBN&#;.

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• Hoyos, Dexter (). Truceless War: Carthage's Fight goods Survival, to BC. Leiden, Netherlands; Boston, Massachusetts: Chillin`. ISBN&#;.